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English Grammar notes

Từ loại​

There are eight kinds of words, called parts of speech:

  1. Nouns
  2. Pronouns (đại từ)
  3. Adjectives
  4. Verbs
  5. Adverbs phó từ, trạng từ, trạng ngữ
  6. Prepositions: giới từ
  7. Conjunctions: liên từ
  8. Interjections: thán từ

Besides, there are three special form of the verb called double parts of speech: The Gerund, The Participle and The Infinitive (Coi thêm trong phần "Verb").

Danh từ đơn vị = lượng từ, quantifier

Sentence structure​

  • clause: mệnh đề
  • phrase: cụm từ

Subordinate Clauses (dependent clause) không thể đi một mình

  • subject: chủ ngữ
  • predicate: vị ngữ
  • verb
  • object: tân ngữ, túc từ
  • complement: required for the completeness of the sentence; đặt sau NOUN, mô tả tình trạng mới.
  • modifier (thành phần phụ nghĩa): optinal, add extra informations, đặt trước NOUN, mô tả tình trạng cũ.

According to the formation of the Predicate, sentences may be classified into FIVE BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS:

  1. S + V; plus optional Verb Modifier
  2. S + V + SC (Subject Compliment); the verb is called linking verb
  3. S + V + O (Object)
  4. S + V + iO + dO (Indirect Object + Direct Object)
  5. S + V + O + OC (Object Compliment) anki The main sentence elements are subject, verb, object and complement. Besides, other words or groups of words called modifiers are used to tell more about the main elements.
    Every main sentence element may take one or more modifiers:
  • Subject Modifier SM
  • Verb Modifier VM
  • Object Modifier OM
  • Direct Object Modifier dOM
  • Indirect Object Modifier iOM
  • Subject Complement Modifier sCM
  • Object Complement Modifier oCM
  • Modifier of another Modifier mM

There are 4 kinds of sentences:

  • Classification according to the meaning:

    1. Statements
    2. Questions
    3. Commands
    4. Exclamations

  • Classification according to the structure:

    1. Simple Sentences (câu đơn): only one Independent Clause (IC)
    2. Compound Sentences (câu ghép): two/more clauses joined by co-ordinating conjunctions (FOR AND NOR BUT OR YET SO). Việc sử dụng comma , dường như là không bắt buộc (chỉ để cho câu dễ nhìn hơn thôi).
    3. Complex Sentences (câu phức): one main clause + ONE/more SUBORDINATE clause joined by Subordinating Conjunctions.
    4. Mixed Sentences (Compound-complex sentence, Câu phức tổng hợp): TWO/more main clause + ONE/more SUBORDINATE clauses.

  • Compound sentence examples:

    • I woke up at six o'clock because I had to hit the gym, but I was too tired to get out of bed.
    • Last night, I ate a lot when I got home, but I was still hungry, so I went to the shopping center to buy some more food.
    • It was cold but we still went to town.
    • It was raining and we stayed indoors.
    • Anna does not do her homework, nor does she learn grammar.
    • I like reading books, but I don’t like reading newspapers.
    • You should call him back, or he comes here to talk to you.
    • The weather was cold and wet, yet we went camping.
    • Mary missed the bus, so she went to school late.

Conjunctions (liên từ)​

There are three main types of conjunctions:

  1. Coordinating conjunctions (liên từ kết hợp), often represented by the acronym FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), connect words, phrases, or independent clauses of equal grammatical importance in a sentence.
  2. Subordinating conjunctions (liên từ phụ thuộc), including although, because, that, while, after, if, when, whether, connect a dependent clause to the independent clause of a sentence, indicating a specific logical relationship between the two.
  3. Correlative Conjunctions (liên từ tương quan): These conjunctions work in pairs to connect grammatically equivalent parts of a sentence. Example: Either/or, neither/nor, both/and.

You can have either pasta or rice.

Sentences with two clauses: When you have two clauses in an English sentence, you must connect the two clauses correctly. One way to connect two clauses is to use and, but, or, so or yet (coordinate connectors) between the clauses. Có dùng commma.

and yet but or so for nor

conjunctive adverb (trạng từ liên kết)​

A conjunctive adverb is an adverb (e.g., alternatively, moreover) or adverb phrase (e.g., as a result, on the other hand) that connects the ideas in different independent clauses or sentences.

Unlike coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so, known as the FANBOYS), conjunctive adverbs cannot grammatically link clauses. Instead, their main purpose is transitioning and describing the relationship between clauses; they are used more to facilitate communication than for grammar.

  • Example:
    • to show contradictions (however, on the other hand)
    • to continue the same point (additionally, moreover)

The weather app said it would rain today. However, no clouds are in the sky.

If you want to combine two independent clauses into one sentence, you can also use a semicolon.

The weather app said it would rain today; however, no clouds are in the sky.

  • More examples:
    • My father had missed the train; therefore, he took a taxi to work.
    • We conducted the survey; next, we analyzed the results.

Just use ;​

  • Khi hai mệnh đề có mối quan hệ gần gũi, các mệnh đề độc lập có thể liên kết với nhau chỉ bằng dấu chấm phẩy ;:
    • My mom is frying fish; my father is washing vegetables.
    • My brother just graduated from high school; he will attend Hue University of Foreign Languages.

Subject​

Object of Preposition (tân ngữ của giới từ) is a noun or pronoun that follows a preposition and completes its meaning. If a word is an object of a preposition, it is not the subject.

An appositive is a noun that comes before or after another noun and has the same meaning. If a word is an appositive, it is not the subject.

Particle & Phrasal Verbs​

The fundamental idea of the particle (tiểu từ) is to add context to the sentence, expressing a mood or indicating a specific action.
A particle is a word that has a grammatical function but does not fit into the main parts of speech (i.e. noun, verb, adverb). Particles do not change.
Don't be confused with articles.

The infinitive to in to fly is an example of a particle, although it can also act as a preposition, e.g. I'm going to Spain next week.

Many words can be described as particles, e.g. conjunctions such as and and 'but' and interjections such as oh and 'wow'. Particles appear frequently in the teaching of phrasal verbs, which can be grouped for teaching purposes by particle, e.g. 'off', 'on', 'out' etc.

Phrasal Verbs (cụm động từ) are made up of a verb and a particle. The particle often changes the meaning of the verb.

  • They've called off the meeting. (call off = to cancel)

  • It looks like rain today.

  • That coat looks expensive.

Preposition​

The Proposition is a word that connects a noun or noun-equivalent with a Verb, an Adjective or another Noun.

  • Forms of Prepositions:
    • Simple Perpositions: on, in, at, for, by, to, with, from...

Nouns​

  • man (singular) > men (plural) => "a" = a man (singular); human
  • woman (singular) > women (plural) => "e" = Every man (plural)
  • foot / feet
  • tooth / teeth
  • fish / fish (same as singular)

“Madam” or “Ma’am” would be the only ways for older children and adults to address a woman, with “Ma’am” usually reserved for addressing someone of high social rank.

uncle - aunt; nephew - niece

  • For singular nouns: each, every, single, one, a
  • For plural nouns: both, two, many, several, various

Keywords for countable and un-countable nouns:

  • For countable nouns: many, number, few, fewer
  • For un-countable nouns: much, amount, little, less

There are three articles:

  • the is the definite article.
  • a/an are the in-definite articles

Plurals of Compound Nouns:

  • Normally, the final element is made plural:
    • housewife - housewives
    • girlfriend - girlfriends
    • match-box => match-boxes
  • When MAN or WOMAN is the first element, both elements are made plural:
    • manservant - menservants
    • woman-doctor => women-doctors
  • Only the first element is made plural when the first element is a noun, and the second element is a PREPOSITION, ADJECTIVE, or ADVERB:
    • father-in-law => fathers-in-law
    • court-martial => courts-martial
    • passer-by => passers-by

apposition (đồng vị ngữ)

Noun Phrases​

Khi dùng phrases phải tránh lỗi Dangling Constructions.

Gerund & Infinitie có thể được dùng như noun:

  • Listening to music is her hobby. => Gerund nói về một thực tế
  • To form a good habit is very hard. => Infinitive chỉ việc chưa xảy ra

Noun Clauses​

Noun clause connectors:

  • what, when, where, why, how

  • whatever, whenever

  • whether, if

  • that

  • Chữ wherever có e ở cuối nên chỉ cần thêm ver thay vì thêm ever sẽ thành whereever là sai

  • what => what+ever

  • when => when+ever

A Noun clause connector can also be the subject of the clause at the same time: whoever, whatever, whichever, who, what, which.

Verb trong dependent clause cũng conjugate như một independent clause.

Pronouns​

  • Subject pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they

  • Object Pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, us, them

  • Possesive adjective: my, your, his, her, its, our, their

  • Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, -- ours, theirs

Everyone must give their* name.
=> Everyone must give his or her name.

If a person really wants to succeed, he or she must always work hard.
If anyone stops by while I am at the meeting, please take a message from him or her.

Adjective & Adverbs​

  • Adjectives have only one job: they describe nouns or pronouns.

  • Adverbs (trạng từ) do three different things. They decribe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

  • Adverbs do NOT affect verb agreement

  • Examples of Adverb:

    • He always goes home late.
    • Personally, I can always help you willingly here every day.
    • He is always polite to the teacher.
    • She is always kind to her mother.
    • Man always loves freedom.
    • Man has always fought aginst the weather.
    • The middle-aged man still remains unmarried.
    • She usually gets up early.
    • He really does not understand. | It really doesn’t matter.
    • He really does not like it.

Generally when a word ends in -ly, it is an adverb. However, there are a few words ending in -ly that are adjectives, and these -ly adjectives can cause confusion. Example: costly, likely, daily, early, lively, weekly, friendly, lonely, monthly, kindly, manly, ....

A prepositional phrase (cụm giới từ) is a group of words beginning with a preposition (like "in," "on," or "at") and includes its object and any modifiers, forming a single unit that functions as either an adjective or an adverb to add detail or clarify relationships within a sentence.

  • Use year-old (hyphenated) when the phrase acts as a compound adjective describing a noun (e.g., a 5-year-old child) or as a noun itself (e.g., "The 5-year-old ran into the room").
  • Use year old`` (no hyphens) when simply stating a person's age after a noun, which is usually the verb "is" (e.g.,The child is 5 years old`).

Compound adjectives & nouns:

  • Vietnam is a rice-producing country.
  • She told him he was a lazy good-for-nothing and should get a job. (Compound Noun)
  • The commander-in-chief is killed during battle. (Compound Noun)
  • I am a fifth-year student.

Adjective Phrases​

A preposition (giới từ) is a word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence, often indicating location, time, or direction. Common examples include in, on, at, to, from, of, by, behind. Prepositions are essential for clarifying the connections between different parts of a sentence.

Prepositional phrase expressing place at the beginning of the sentence do not need comma.

Adjective Clauses​

An Adjective Clause is a subordinate one used in the same way as an Adjective to modify a Noun or Noun-equivalent.
Adjective clauses are introduced by relative pronouns OR relative adverbs (they can also be called adjective connnectors).

  • Relative pronouns (or Adjective clause connectors):
    • For person: who, whom, whose.
    • For object/thing: which, that, of which, as, but.
    • that (for people or thing)
    • AS is used instead of WHO, WHOM, WHICH, THAT after SAME, SUCH.
    • BUT is used instead of who...not, which...not, that...not when the main clause is also NEGATIVE.
  • Relative adverb: where, when, why.

The adjective connnectors can be omitted. This omission is very common in spoken English or in casual written English. It is not as common in formal English.

An adjective clause connector can also be the subject of the clause at the same time.

Noun clauses KHÔNG dùng comma.

  • ADJECTIVE CLAUSES có 02 chức năng:

    • Defining rất cần cho ý nghĩa chính của câu và
    • Non-defining không cần thiết, chỉ phụ thêm ý chi tiết.

  • Dùng comma (,) trước và sau Non-defining adjective clause:

    • This is the boy who broke our window. (Defining)
    • This boy, who lives next door, broke our window. (Non-defining)

  • More examples:

    • The student who won the first prize has lent me this book.
    • He is always polite to the teacher whom he respects.
    • He lives in the house whose windows are painted in grey.
    • You should show my friend the same respect as you show me.
    • There was no man but respected him. (Không người nào kính trọng ông ấy cả.)
    • I cannot find any seat but has been taken. (Tôi không tìm được ghế nào chưa có người ngồi.)
    • I went to the office where my father works.
    • You can visit me on Sundays when I am usually free.

Adverb clause​

  • Adverb time connector: after, before, since, while, as soon as, once, when
  • Adverb cause connector: as, now that, because, since
  • Condition connector: if, in case, provided, providing
  • Contrast: although, even though, though
  • Manner: as, in that
  • Place: where, wherever
  • Purpose, result, comparision

Adverb clause connectors (also called subordinating conjunctions) cannot be the subject of the clause.

When the connector comes at the beginning of the sentence, a comma , is required in the middle of the sentence.
Noun clauses & adjective clauses KHÔNG dùng comma.

  • He ate because he was hungry.
  • Because he was hungry, he ate.

Verb​

Hai loại verbs tạo thành 5 mẫu câu là Transitive Verbs (vt, ngoại động từ) và Intransitive Verbs (vi, nội động từ).

  • Pattern I uses a Complete Intransitive which requires no Object nor Complement.
  • P. II uses an Incomplete Intransitive verb (aka Linking verb) which requires a Subject Complement
  • P. III IV V use Transitive Verbs which always require Object.

Different forms of verbs in English, with the example verb know:

  • Plain form, base form (V1): know
  • Third-person singular (ngôi thứ ba số ít): knows
  • Past tense, simple past form (V2): knew
  • Past participle (V3): known. The Past participle form is used in the perfect tenses.
  • Present participle: knowing

It's called "third person"" because the speaker (first person) is talking about a third party (not the speaker or the person being addressed). It's "singular" because it refers to only one person or thing. So, "third person singular" identifies the grammatical subject as a single, separate entity from the speaker and listener, such as "he," "she," "it," or a singular noun like "the boy" or "the dog"

Gerund (danh động từ): Walking every day is good for health.

Infinitie (động từ nguyên mẫu): To obey the laws is everyone's duty.
Trong tiếng Nhật cũng có infinitive.

Participle (phân từ) is a word formed from a verb, ending in -ing (= the present participle) or -ed, -en, etc. (= the past participle).
Don't be confused with particle (tiểu từ).

  • A present participle is the -ing form of the verb. The present participle can be (1) part of the verb or (2) an adjective. It is part of the verb when it is accompanied by some form of the verb be. It is an adjective when it is not accompanied by some form of the verb be.
  • A Past Participle often ends in -ed but there are also many irregular past participles. For many verbs, including -ed verbs, the simple past and the past participle are the same and can be easily confused. The -ed form of the verb can be (1) the simple past, (2) the past participle of a verb used in perfect tense, or (3) an adjective.

Gerunds and present participles both use the -ing form of a verb, but they have different grammatical functions. Gerunds act as nouns, while present participles can act as adjectives or part of a verb phrase (continuous tenses).

Auxiliary verbs (trợ động từ) help form tenses (e.g., "is running," "have finished"), moods (e.g., "was written," passive voice), and voices of main verbs. Example: be (am, is, are, was, were), have (has, have, had), do (does, do, did).

Modal verb (Động từ khuyết thiếu) show if we believe something is certain, possible or impossible: can-could, may-might, must, shall-should, will-would
Phía sau modal verb dùng base form of the verb. Ngoại trừ conditional loại 2, 3.
always is an adveb & does not affect verb congjugation

  • Everyone must give his or her name.
  • May God bless you.

The modal verb will expresses certain future actions, predictions, promises, and offers, while would is used for hypothetical situations (Second Conditional), polite requests, past habits, and as the past tense of will in reported speech. The key is context: will is for real future events, and would deals with the unreal, the polite, or the past perspective

Auxiliary verbs and modal verbs are both types of helping verbs, but they differ in function and characteristics. Modal verbs express modality (possibility, ability, necessity, etc.) and are NOT conjugated, while auxiliary verbs help form tenses, moods, and voices of main verbs and are conjugated.

Agreement of Subject and Verb​

  1. I, we (ngôi thứ nhất)
  2. you (ngôi thứ hai)
  3. he, she, it, they (ngôi thứ ba)

  • The pronoun it requires a singular verb:

    • It walks.
    • It seems that you misunderstand me.

  • My friend and boss is here. (Người bạn và cũng là xếp của tôi)

  • My friend and my boss are here. (Một người bạn và một người xếp đều đang ở đây)

  • She and he are right.

  • When a prepositional phrase comes between the subject and the verb, be sure that the verb agrees with the real subject not the object of preposition:

    • Miss Ginny with her dog is coming.
    • The President together with his advisors is making a tour of inspection.
    • A bandit along with some deserters is creating disturbance.
    • The first volume, poems and storie, is the best.
    • The burden of taxes is terrible for customers.
    • The complain of the students is the many required subjects.

  • THE NUMBER OF requires a singular or plural verb; mostly singular.

    • The number of students in that class is small. (lớp ít học sinh)

  • A NUMBER OF always requires a plural verb.

    • A number of sheep are eating grass. (vài con cừu đang ăn cỏ)
    • A number of people are still waiting. (còn vài người đang chờ)

  • When NONE is the subject, the verb may be singulr or plural according to the noun or pronoun that follows NONE OF:

    • None of this money is mine.
    • None of us are coming.
    • None of the policemen are willing to do it.

  • When the subject is used with every, each, either, neither, any, the verb must be singular:

    • Every student is willing to join the picnic.
    • Each of the passengers is reading newspaper.
    • Mr. Brown has two sons and either of them is intelligent.
    • My parents are in but neither of them is awake.
    • Anybody is fine with me.
    • I don’t mind who — anyone is okay.
    • Everybody goes to see his show.
    • Nobody goes to my birthday party.

  • When subjects are connected with either... or, neither... nor, the verb agrees with the subject nearer to it:

    • Either you or I am wrong. (Cả anh lẫn tôi đều sai)
    • Neither the players nor the referee is wholly right. (Cả cầu thủ lẫn trọng tài đều không hoàn toàn có lý)
    • Neither the teacher nor his students are to blame for the bad result.

  • When subject is a plural noun denoting a sum of money, a distance, a period of time, a measurement or an operation, the verb is singular:

    • One thousand dollars is too much to py for the used car.
    • Two hundred kilometers is such a long way for the refugess to run on foot.
    • More than two hours is a long time for me to wait.
    • Thirty six inches is one yard.
    • Four times six is twenty four.

  • Fractions my take singular or plural verb depending on the noun that follows:

    • Two-thirds of the dining-table is reserved for us.
    • One quarter of the students are absent.

  • The collective nouns PEOPLE, POLICE, PUBLIC, CLERGY, CATTLE are always used with plural verbs:

    • The public are requested not to step onn grass.
    • The police are searching for the criminal.
    • People are happy when news is good.

  • A collective requires a singular verb when the group is regarded as one unit, and a plural verb when members of the group are considered all members:

    • My family is poor while yours is rich.
    • My family are early risers.
    • The football team is going to win. (đội bóng sẽ chiến thắng)
    • The football team are refreshing themselves. (các cầu thủ đang giải khát)

(all, most, some, half) of the (object) => verb agrees with the object.

  • Uncountable nouns like information are always treated as singular.

    • The information is interesting.
    • All of the information was interesting.

  • (Behind the house) were the bicycles I wanted. => The real subject is bicycles. Subject and verb are inverted in this sentence.

  • (Behind the houses) was the bicycle I wanted.

These words or expressions are gramatically singular, so they take singular verbs:

  • annybody, anyone, anything

  • everybody, everyone, everything

  • nobody, no one, nothing

  • somebody, soneone, something

  • each (+ noun), every (+ noun)

  • The child is playing in the garden.

  • The children are having a good time.

The verb agreement for who depends on its antecedent (the noun it refers to); if "who" refers to a singular noun, use a singular verb, and if it refers to a plural noun, use a plural verb. However, "who" as the subject of a question (e.g., Who is coming?) uses a singular verb, even if the implied answer is plural.

  • Justin is the person who fixes our computer problems. => Singular antecedent uses a singular verb.
  • The manager should listen to the people who work for him. => Plural antecedent

The 12 Principal Tenses​

  1. If you see a sentence with one verb in the past annd one verb in the present, the sentence is probably incorrect.
  2. However, it is possible for a correct sentence to hve both past and present together.
  3. If you see the past and present together, you must check the meaning to determine wwhether or not the sentence is correct.
  • will means "after the present"; do not use with past tense
  • would means "after the past"; do not use with present

There are 12 Principal Tenses (4 Forms/Time multiply by 3 Tenses):

  1. Simple Present (Thì hiện tại đơn), Simple Past, Simple Future
  2. Present Continuous (Thì hiện tại tiếp diễn), Past Continuous, Future continuous
  3. Present Perfect (Thì hiện tại hoàn thành), Past Perfect, Future Perfect
  4. Present Perfect Continuous (Thì hiện tại hoàn thành tiếp diễn), Past Perfect Continuous, Future Perfect Continuous

The SIMPLE PAST TENSE is used to express:

  • an action completed in the past:
    • He learnt English for five years. (ie. He is not learning it now)
    • He died in a collison.
  • In Second Conditional. The condition and the result are ==not taking place in the past==, but the past tense is used to indicate the unreal nature of the situation:
    • If I were you, I wouldn't wait to study for the test.

The SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE (will + base verb because will is a modal verb) is used to express:

  • a future possibility or something not depending upon our will:
    • He will (probably) come here tomorrow. (NOT: He will goes)
    • She will like it. (Not: likes)
    • (I think) it will rain soon.
  • First Conditional:
    • If he sees me again, he will take it back.

The Past Continuous is used to express:

  • For some period of time in the past:
    • I was waiting for you all day yesterday.
    • It was raining all through last night.
  • When another happened; this new action is in Simple Past
    • I was reading a novel when she came.
    • He went out while it was raining.
  • At some point of time in the past
    • It was raining at 4 o'clock yesterday afternoon.
    • I was staying in Mocay on your birthday.

The PRESENT PERFECT is used to express:

  • A past action continuing to the present
    • He has learnt Hanzi for three years. (=He is still learning it now)
    • I have waited for you since 2 o'clock. (=I'm waiting now)
  • The first of two actions in present or future:
    • He always does things after he has asked for my advice.
    • I'll come here tomorrow when I have got some money.
  • In the Third Conditional with a modal verb (would, could).

The PAST PERFECT is used to express:

  • The first of two actions in the past
    • When she had sung her song, she sat down.
    • Yesterday he told me everything he had written in his diary.

    JUST may be used to denote an action recently completed before another.

    • She had just gone out when we called on her yesterday.
    • We had just reached home when it rained.
  • In Third Conditional for an impossible supposition in the past. IF > HAD - past participle + WOULD HAVE-past participle
    • If you had passed your exam last year, you would have gone abroad.
    • I would have helped you if you had told me the trouble.

The FUTURE PERFECT is used to expres:

  • The first of two future actions:
    • When I go abroad next year, I**'ll have spoken** English well.
    • I will have got some money when I come here tomorrow.
  • The completion of an action before a pointn of future time or before another action in the future:
    • I'll have finished this by 2 o'clock tomorrow afternoon.
    • By the end of the month, I'll have spent all the money.
  • an action occupying a period of time from the past, present or future till another action or point of future time:
    • By next Christmas, I'll have lived here for 15 years.
    • I'm going to see him now and I'll have talked to him for two hours before the conference.

The Perfect Continuous Tenses have the same uses as the Perfect Tenses but they emphasize the continuous nature of the action.

  • The PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS is used to express an action going on before the present moment:
    • I have been waiting for hours.
    • She has been living in Dalat for years.
  • The PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS is used to express an action going on before another past action or point:
    • When we arrived there yesterday, they had been showing the film.
    • She had been knowing him (for years) before their wedding in 2002.
  • The FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS is used to express an action going on before another future action or point:
    • I'll have been studying English for years before I go abroad.
    • He will have been studying the case before he makes up his mind.

Successive & Simultaneous Actions​

  • For two or more successive actions, every verb in the sentence will pe put in the same tense:
    • Yeterday morning, I woke up early, jumped out of the bed, took a shower, got dressed, had my breakfast, looked for my umbrella, and went to the bus-stop.
    • He came in and smiled.
  • For two ore more simultaneous actions, only the first verb in the sentence is in finite form, and the rest will be put in Present Participle:
    • He came in smiling, shking his head, putting his hands in pockets.
    • She stood there looking out of the window.
    • My father always has his breakfast reading newspaper.

Conditional​

  • The First Conditional: If + simple present, will + base verb (simple future tense):

    • If he sees me again, he will take it back.

  • The Second Conditional: If + simple past, modal + base verb (infinitive). Thường dùng would/could as the modal verb.

    • If I were you, I wouldn't wait to study for the test.
    • If I had a million dollars, I could afford a bigger house.

The Third Conditional: If + past perfect, modal + present perfect:

  • If it had rained last week, the plants would not have died.
  • If I had finished college, I would have become a doctor.
  • It wasn’t me — I wouldn’t have done this.

The past subjunctive (giả định quá khứ) is a verb form, most notably using were instead of was, to express hypothetical, unreal, or contrary-to-fact situations in the present, future, or past. It is most commonly triggered by expressions like "if," "wish," and "as if" to describe wishes, unreal conditions, and situations that are not actually true. For example, in the sentence "I wish I were taller," the use of "were" signals that the speaker is not actually taller but wishes they were. Indicative là câu chỉ định (facts).

Sentences with Reduced Clauses​

The two types of clauses that can be reduced in English are:

  1. Adjective clauses: only when if the connector is also the subject of the clause
  2. adverb clauses.

Sentences with Inverted Subjects and Verbs​

I do not want to go, and neither does Tom. => Two clauses joined with and.

If you should arrive before 6:00, just give me a call.
Should you arrive before 6:00, just give me a call.

Parallel Structure​

  • I like to sing and dancing. => not balance
  • I like to sing and to dance.

The paired conjunctions both...and, either...or, neither...nor and not only...but also require prallel structures.

Problems with usage​

  • John and Tom are alike.

  • John and Tom worked in a like manner.

  • John is like Tom.

  • John is unlike Tom.

  • Like Tom, John is tall.

  • Unlike Tom, John is tall.

Chinese​

Trong tiếng Trung, tính từ còn được gọi là hình dung từ.

Trong ngôn ngữ học, hư từ (funciton words, chữ Hán: 虛詞, tiếng Anh: function word hay functor) là từ có ít nghĩa từ vựng hoặc có nghĩa từ vựng mơ hồ và là để thể hiện quan hệ ngữ pháp giữa các từ khác trong câu, hoặc là để chỉ rõ thái độ hoặc tâm trạng của người nói. Chúng báo hiệu quan hệ cấu trúc mà từ ngữ có với nhau, và là kết dính để giữ các câu lại với nhau. Do đó chúng làm nên yếu tố quan trọng trong cấu trúc của câu.

văn ngôn: cổ văn, được sử dụng phổ biển trong sách vở từ thời Xuân Thu thế kỷ 5 TCN cho đến tận thế kỷ 20, khiến nó khác xa với nhiều dạng văn nói tiếng Hán hiện đại. Loại ngôn ngữ viết này dùng ngữ pháp và từ vựng cổ xưa có thể thấy trong điển tịch Tam giáo, nay đã bị đào thải và thay thế bằng bạch thoại ở Trung Quốc sau cuộc vận động văn hóa mới.

Ngày nay người ta dùng Bạch thoại Quan thoại.

Sound structure & Linguistics​

Phonology (âm vị học) is the branch of linguistics that studies how languages systematically organize their phonemes or, for sign languages, their constituent parts of signs. The term can also refer specifically to the sound or sign system of a particular language variety.

A diphthong (nguyên âm đôi, from Ancient Greek δίφθογγος (díphthongos) 'two sounds', from δίς (dís) 'twice' and φθόγγος (phthóngos) 'sound'), also known as a gliding vowel or a vowel glide, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable.

Trong tiếng việt, trung, quảng, phụ âm có thể đứng trước.

  • Vowel (nguyên âm):
    • a e i o u y are vowel in English.
    • Not stopped by your tongue, lips or teeth
    • Mouth open, air flow freely from the lung
    • The word vowel comes from the Latin word vocalis, meaning "vocal" (i.e. relating to the voice).
    • Is the nucleus of a syllable
  • Consonant (phụ âm):
    • Is pronounced with some type of constrictio of the flow of the air (with tongue or lip)
    • Example: b
    • The word consonant comes from Latin oblique stem cōnsonant-, from cōnsonāns 'sounding-together'
  • Syllable (âm tiết, chữ, tiếng):
    • là một đơn vị cấu tạo nên một sự phối hợp trong tiếng nói
    • Một từ gồm một âm tiết (như nước trong tiếng Việt) được gọi là đơn âm tiết (những từ như vậy được gọi là từ đơn âm tiết), trong khi những từ gồm hai âm tiết trở lên (ví dụ tivi) được gọi là đa âm tiết (từ như vậy được gọi là từ đa âm tiết).
    • Ví dụ, từ Latinh được kết hợp từ hai âm tiết: la và tinh. Một âm tiết điển hình được cấu tạo từ một nhân âm tiết (thông thường nhất là một nguyên âm) và giới hạn trước và sau không bắt buộc (điển hình là các phụ âm).

Rules:

  • Consonants cannot form a syllable alone. They always come before or after vowels.
  • There is always one vowel per syllable and it is always the center of it.

Cantonese syllable structure wiki.

Standard Chinese phonology wiki.

Japanese Syllables​

In Japanese, there are five vowels: あ い う え お. The syllable く is /k/ consonant + /u/ vowel
For example, the word for “man” is “hito,” which is the simple combination of “hi” and “to,” and the word “katakana” can readily be broken up into four syllables: ka-ta-ka-na.

You may wonder how the Japanese could have built a great civilization while having only 7 consonnants in their language. Of course, they couldn’t have. They also have other consonants, and they represent them with the same characters with marks to distinguish voiced, unvoiced, and explosive consonants. For example, the “t” in “ta” is unvoiced, and if you voice it you get “d.” So “da” is obtained by using the character for “ta” and adding two marks after it.

Thanh Mẫu, Vận Mẫu và Thanh Điệu Trong Tiếng Trung​

Trong tiếng Trung, thanh mẫu (声母, initial), vận mẫu (韵母, final), và thanh điệu (声调) là ba yếu tố cơ bản cấu thành âm tiết của từ ngữ.

  • Thanh mẫu là các phụ âm đầu (initial consonant) trong một âm tiết, đóng vai trò như phần mở đầu, giúp định hình cách phát âm.
  • Vận mẫu (final vowel) là phần kết thúc của âm tiết, thường là nguyên âm hoặc tổ hợp nguyên âm, đóng vai trò chính trong việc kéo dài và làm rõ âm.

Có 4 thanh điệu

Tiếng việt, trung, cantonese ngoài vowel + consonant còn có thêm tone. A syllable is consists of three elements: initial, final, tone. A Cantonese word may be made up of one or more syllables. Mỗi một chữ hán ứng với 1 syllable.
Phụ âm chỉ có thể tạo thành một âm tiết hoàn chỉnh khi kết hợp với nguyên âm.

Trong tiếng Trung có 21 phụ âm (còn gọi là thanh mẫu, phụ âm phía trước). Gồm 18 phụ âm đơn và 3 phụ âm kép. Còn 2 phụ âm không chính thức: y và w chính là nguyên âm i và u khi nó đừng đầu câu.